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'Distributed application' redirects here. For smart contracts, see. Distributed computing is a field of that studies distributed systems.

A distributed system is a model in which components located on communicate and coordinate their actions. The components interact with each other in order to achieve a common goal. Three significant characteristics of distributed systems are: concurrency of components,, and independent failure of components.

Examples of distributed systems vary from to to. A that runs in a distributed system is called a distributed program, and distributed programming is the process of writing such programs. There are many alternatives for the message passing mechanism, including pure HTTP, connectors and. [ ] A goal and challenge pursued by some computer scientists and practitioners in distributed systems is; however, this goal has fallen out of favour in industry, as distributed systems are different from conventional non-distributed systems, and the differences, such as, partial system failures, and partial upgrades, cannot simply be 'papered over' by attempts at 'transparency' (see ).

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[ ] Distributed computing also refers to the use of distributed systems to solve computational problems. In distributed computing, a problem is divided into many tasks, each of which is solved by one or more computers, which communicate with each other by message passing. Contents • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Introduction [ ] The word distributed in terms such as 'distributed system', 'distributed programming', and ' originally referred to computer networks where individual computers were physically distributed within some geographical area. The terms are nowadays used in a much wider sense, even referring to autonomous that run on the same physical computer and interact with each other by message passing. While there is no single definition of a distributed system, the following defining properties are commonly used: • There are several autonomous computational entities ( computers or ), each of which has its own local. • The entities communicate with each other.

A distributed system may have a common goal, such as solving a large computational problem; the user then perceives the collection of autonomous processors as a unit. Alternatively, each computer may have its own user with individual needs, and the purpose of the distributed system is to coordinate the use of shared resources or provide communication services to the users. Other typical properties of distributed systems include the following: • The system has to in individual computers.

• The structure of the system (network topology, network latency, number of computers) is not known in advance, the system may consist of different kinds of computers and network links, and the system may change during the execution of a distributed program. • Each computer has only a limited, incomplete view of the system. Each computer may know only one part of the input. Parallel and distributed computing [ ]. (a), (b): a distributed system. (c): a parallel system.

Distributed systems are groups of networked computers, which have the same goal for their work. The terms ', ', and 'distributed computing' have a lot of overlap, and no clear distinction exists between them.

The same system may be characterized both as 'parallel' and 'distributed'; the processors in a typical distributed system run concurrently in parallel. Parallel computing may be seen as a particular tightly coupled form of distributed computing, and distributed computing may be seen as a loosely coupled form of parallel computing. Nevertheless, it is possible to roughly classify concurrent systems as 'parallel' or 'distributed' using the following criteria: • In parallel computing, all processors may have access to a to exchange information between processors. • In distributed computing, each processor has its own private memory (). Information is exchanged by passing messages between the processors. The figure on the right illustrates the difference between distributed and parallel systems. Figure (a) is a schematic view of a typical distributed system; the system is represented as a network topology in which each node is a computer and each line connecting the nodes is a communication link.

Figure (b) shows the same distributed system in more detail: each computer has its own local memory, and information can be exchanged only by passing messages from one node to another by using the available communication links. Figure (c) shows a parallel system in which each processor has a direct access to a shared memory. The situation is further complicated by the traditional uses of the terms parallel and distributed algorithm that do not quite match the above definitions of parallel and distributed systems (see for more detailed discussion). Nevertheless, as a rule of thumb, high-performance parallel computation in a shared-memory multiprocessor uses parallel algorithms while the coordination of a large-scale distributed system uses distributed algorithms. [ ] History [ ] The use of concurrent processes that communicate by message-passing has its roots in architectures studied in the 1960s.

The first widespread distributed systems were such as, which was invented in the 1970s., the predecessor of the, was introduced in the late 1960s, and ARPANET was invented in the early 1970s. E-mail became the most successful application of ARPANET, and it is probably the earliest example of a large-scale. In addition to ARPANET, and its successor, the Internet, other early worldwide computer networks included and from the 1980s, both of which were used to support distributed discussion systems. [ ] The study of distributed computing became its own branch of computer science in the late 1970s and early 1980s. The first conference in the field, (PODC), dates back to 1982, and its European counterpart (DISC) was first held in 1985. [ ] Architectures [ ] Various hardware and software architectures are used for distributed computing. At a lower level, it is necessary to interconnect multiple CPUs with some sort of network, regardless of whether that network is printed onto a circuit board or made up of loosely coupled devices and cables.

At a higher level, it is necessary to interconnect running on those CPUs with some sort of. [ ] Distributed programming typically falls into one of several basic architectures:,,, or; or categories:,. •: architectures where smart clients contact the server for data then format and display it to the users. Input at the client is committed back to the server when it represents a permanent change.

•: architectures that move the client intelligence to a middle tier so that stateless clients can be used. This simplifies application deployment. Asus P4p800 Vm Audio Drivers Xp.

Most web applications are three-tier. •: architectures that refer typically to web applications which further forward their requests to other enterprise services. This type of application is the one most responsible for the success of. •: architectures where there are no special machines that provide a service or manage the network resources.: 227 Instead all responsibilities are uniformly divided among all machines, known as peers. Peers can serve both as clients and as servers. [ ] Another basic aspect of distributed computing architecture is the method of communicating and coordinating work among concurrent processes. Through various message passing protocols, processes may communicate directly with one another, typically in a relationship.

Alternatively, a can enable distributed computing to be done without any form of direct, by utilizing a shared. Applications [ ] Reasons for using distributed systems and distributed computing may include: • The very nature of an application may require the use of a communication network that connects several computers: for example, data produced in one physical location and required in another location. • There are many cases in which the use of a single computer would be possible in principle, but the use of a distributed system is beneficial for practical reasons. For example, it may be more cost-efficient to obtain the desired level of performance by using a of several low-end computers, in comparison with a single high-end computer. A distributed system can provide more reliability than a non-distributed system, as there is no. Moreover, a distributed system may be easier to expand and manage than a monolithic uniprocessor system. Examples [ ] Examples of distributed systems and applications of distributed computing include the following: • networks: • and, • such as the, •, •; • network applications: • and, • and communities, • and, •, • distributed information processing systems such as banking systems and airline reservation systems; • real-time process control: • control systems, •; •: •, including and and various projects (see the ), • in computer graphics Theoretical foundations [ ].

Main article: Models [ ] Many tasks that we would like to automate by using a computer are of question–answer type: we would like to ask a question and the computer should produce an answer. In, such tasks are called. Formally, a computational problem consists of instances together with a solution for each instance. Instances are questions that we can ask, and solutions are desired answers to these questions. Theoretical computer science seeks to understand which computational problems can be solved by using a computer () and how efficiently ().

Traditionally, it is said that a problem can be solved by using a computer if we can design an that produces a correct solution for any given instance. Such an algorithm can be implemented as a that runs on a general-purpose computer: the program reads a problem instance from, performs some computation, and produces the solution as. Formalisms such as or can be used as abstract models of a sequential general-purpose computer executing such an algorithm. [ ] The field of concurrent and distributed computing studies similar questions in the case of either multiple computers, or a computer that executes a network of interacting processes: which computational problems can be solved in such a network and how efficiently? However, it is not at all obvious what is meant by 'solving a problem' in the case of a concurrent or distributed system: for example, what is the task of the algorithm designer, and what is the concurrent or distributed equivalent of a sequential general-purpose computer?

[ ] The discussion below focuses on the case of multiple computers, although many of the issues are the same for concurrent processes running on a single computer. Three viewpoints are commonly used: Parallel algorithms in shared-memory model • All processors have access to a shared memory. The algorithm designer chooses the program executed by each processor.

• One theoretical model is the (PRAM) that are used. However, the classical PRAM model assumes synchronous access to the shared memory. • Shared-memory programs can be extended to distributed systems if the underlying operating system encapsulates the communication between nodes and virtually unifies the memory across all individual systems. • A model that is closer to the behavior of real-world multiprocessor machines and takes into account the use of machine instructions, such as (CAS), is that of asynchronous shared memory. There is a wide body of work on this model, a summary of which can be found in the literature. Parallel algorithms in message-passing model • The algorithm designer chooses the structure of the network, as well as the program executed by each computer. • Models such as and are used.

A Boolean circuit can be seen as a computer network: each gate is a computer that runs an extremely simple computer program. Similarly, a sorting network can be seen as a computer network: each comparator is a computer. Distributed algorithms in message-passing model • The algorithm designer only chooses the computer program. All computers run the same program.

The system must work correctly regardless of the structure of the network. • A commonly used model is a with one per node. In the case of distributed algorithms, computational problems are typically related to graphs.

Often the graph that describes the structure of the computer network is the problem instance. This is illustrated in the following example. [ ] An example [ ] Consider the computational problem of finding a coloring of a given graph G. Different fields might take the following approaches: Centralized algorithms [ ] • The graph G is encoded as a string, and the string is given as input to a computer. The computer program finds a coloring of the graph, encodes the coloring as a string, and outputs the result. Parallel algorithms • Again, the graph G is encoded as a string.

However, multiple computers can access the same string in parallel. Each computer might focus on one part of the graph and produce a coloring for that part. • The main focus is on high-performance computation that exploits the processing power of multiple computers in parallel. Distributed algorithms • The graph G is the structure of the computer network. There is one computer for each node of G and one communication link for each edge of G.

Initially, each computer only knows about its immediate neighbors in the graph G; the computers must exchange messages with each other to discover more about the structure of G. Each computer must produce its own color as output. • The main focus is on coordinating the operation of an arbitrary distributed system.

[ ] While the field of parallel algorithms has a different focus than the field of distributed algorithms, there is a lot of interaction between the two fields. For example, the for graph coloring was originally presented as a parallel algorithm, but the same technique can also be used directly as a distributed algorithm.

Moreover, a parallel algorithm can be implemented either in a parallel system (using shared memory) or in a distributed system (using message passing). The traditional boundary between parallel and distributed algorithms (choose a suitable network vs. Run in any given network) does not lie in the same place as the boundary between parallel and distributed systems (shared memory vs. Message passing). Complexity measures [ ] In parallel algorithms, yet another resource in addition to time and space is the number of computers.

Indeed, often there is a trade-off between the running time and the number of computers: the problem can be solved faster if there are more computers running in parallel (see ). If a decision problem can be solved in by using a polynomial number of processors, then the problem is said to be in the class. The class NC can be defined equally well by using the PRAM formalism or Boolean circuits—PRAM machines can simulate Boolean circuits efficiently and vice versa. In the analysis of distributed algorithms, more attention is usually paid on communication operations than computational steps. Perhaps the simplest model of distributed computing is a synchronous system where all nodes operate in a lockstep fashion. During each communication round, all nodes in parallel (1) receive the latest messages from their neighbours, (2) perform arbitrary local computation, and (3) send new messages to their neighbors. In such systems, a central complexity measure is the number of synchronous communication rounds required to complete the task.

This complexity measure is closely related to the of the network. Let D be the diameter of the network. On the one hand, any computable problem can be solved trivially in a synchronous distributed system in approximately 2 D communication rounds: simply gather all information in one location ( D rounds), solve the problem, and inform each node about the solution ( D rounds). On the other hand, if the running time of the algorithm is much smaller than D communication rounds, then the nodes in the network must produce their output without having the possibility to obtain information about distant parts of the network.

In other words, the nodes must make globally consistent decisions based on information that is available in their local neighbourhood. Many distributed algorithms are known with the running time much smaller than D rounds, and understanding which problems can be solved by such algorithms is one of the central research questions of the field. Other commonly used measures are the total number of bits transmitted in the network (cf. [ ] Other problems [ ] Traditional computational problems take the perspective that we ask a question, a computer (or a distributed system) processes the question for a while, and then produces an answer and stops.

However, there are also problems where we do not want the system to ever stop. Examples of such problems include the and other similar problems. In these problems, the distributed system is supposed to continuously coordinate the use of shared resources so that no conflicts or occur. There are also fundamental challenges that are unique to distributed computing. The first example is challenges that are related to fault-tolerance. Examples of related problems include,, and.

A lot of research is also focused on understanding the asynchronous nature of distributed systems: • can be used to run synchronous algorithms in asynchronous systems. • provide a causal ordering of events. • algorithms provide globally consistent physical time stamps.

Coordinator election (or leader election) is the process of designating a single as the organizer of some task distributed among several computers (nodes). Before the task is begun, all network nodes are either unaware which node will serve as the 'coordinator' (or leader) of the task, or unable to communicate with the current coordinator. After a coordinator election algorithm has been run, however, each node throughout the network recognizes a particular, unique node as the task coordinator. [ ] The network nodes communicate among themselves in order to decide which of them will get into the 'coordinator' state. For that, they need some method in order to break the symmetry among them.

For example, if each node has unique and comparable identities, then the nodes can compare their identities, and decide that the node with the highest identity is the coordinator. D900 Code Reader Software Update. [ ] The definition of this problem is often attributed to LeLann, who formalized it as a method to create a new token in a token in which the token has been lost.

Coordinator election algorithms are designed to be economical in terms of total transmitted, and time. The algorithm suggested by Gallager, Humblet, and Spira for general undirected graphs has had a strong impact on the design of distributed algorithms in general, and won the for an influential paper in distributed computing. Many other algorithms were suggested for different kind of network, such as undirected rings, unidirectional rings, complete graphs, grids, directed Euler graphs, and others. A general method that decouples the issue of the graph family from the design of the coordinator election algorithm was suggested by Korach, Kutten, and Moran. In order to perform coordination, distributed systems employ the concept of coordinators. The coordinator election problem is to choose a process from among a group of processes on different processors in a distributed system to act as the central coordinator.

Several central coordinator election algorithms exist. Properties of distributed systems [ ] So far the focus has been on designing a distributed system that solves a given problem. A complementary research problem is studying the properties of a given distributed system. The is an analogous example from the field of centralised computation: we are given a computer program and the task is to decide whether it halts or runs forever. The halting problem is in the general case, and naturally understanding the behaviour of a computer network is at least as hard as understanding the behaviour of one computer. [ ] However, there are many interesting special cases that are decidable.

In particular, it is possible to reason about the behaviour of a network of finite-state machines. One example is telling whether a given network of interacting (asynchronous and non-deterministic) finite-state machines can reach a deadlock. This problem is, i.e., it is decidable, but it is not likely that there is an efficient (centralised, parallel or distributed) algorithm that solves the problem in the case of large networks.

See also [ ].

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Online-revolution.com/l.ist_5_18_11.pdf • Author: none • Size: 37 KB • Created: Tue May 17 11. Pages: 1 Microsoft Word - wci061913.doc DC INDIE MINIATURE JESUS 3 5100 BULLETS BROTHER LONO 1 8 ADVENTURE TIME TP VOL 03 MY LITTLE PONY COLOR ME TREASURY EDANIMAL MAN 21 B V FRIENDS Double Digest 234 MY LITTLE PONY MICRO SERIES 5 6BATGIRL ROBIN YEAR ONE TP BALTIMORE THE INQUISITOR ONE SHOT NEWTYPE APR 2013BATMAN AND BATGIRL 21 BETTY VERONICA 266 REG OCCUPY Comics 2BATMAN BEYOND UNLIMITED 17 BLOODSHOT VU 1. Coliseumofcomics.com/downloads/whatcamein/wci_061913.pd./wci_061913.pdf • Author: none • Size: 597 KB • Created: Mon Jun 17 16. Pages: 1 Journey into Mystery 630 Fear New Comics TPB s Justice League Dark 2Kato 14Kirby Genesis 4for the Week of 10 26 11 Legion Secret Origin 1Magdalena 9Mighty Thor 7 FearAction Adventure New Mutants 32 Fear27 Second Set 2 Pilot Season The Beauty 1Anne Rice Servant of the Bones 3 Red Skull 4Breed III 6 Savage Hawkman 2Butcher Baker Righteous Maker 7 Secret Avengers 18Captain Swing 4 Secret Avengers 18. Online-revolution.com/li.st_10_26_11.pdf • Author: none • Size: 146 KB • Created: Mon Oct 24 08. Pages: 1 Microsoft Word - wci050113.doc DC WINTER SOLDIER 18 MAGIC THE GATHERING TP VOL 03 VENGEANCEACTION Comics 20 X-FACTOR 255 MARS ATTACKS 10AME COMI GIRLS 3 X-MEN LEGACY 10 MICE TEMPLAR IV LEGEND 2ANIMAL MAN 20 MICHAEL AVON OEMINGS VICTORIES 1 5AQUAMAN 19 INDIE MICHAEL KALUTA SKETCHBOOK SERIES SC V04BATWING 20 3 NEW STORIES ONE SHOT MISS FURY 2DETECTIVE Comics 20 47 RONIN 4 5 MISTER X EVICTION 1 3DIAL.

Coliseumofcomics.com/downloads/whatcamein/wci_050113.pd./wci_050113.pdf • Author: none • Size: 584 KB • Created: Mon Apr 29 16. Pages: 8 NEW Comics AUGUST 14 2013 Comics MAGAZINES100 PENNY PRESS STAR TREK 1ADVENTURE TIME CANDY CAPERS 2 OF 6ANIMAL MAN ANNUAL 2 reorderARCHER ARMSTRONG 12 REG LUPACCHINOARCHIE FRIENDS Double Digest 30ASTONISHING X-MEN 65ASTRO CITY 3AVENGERS ARENA 13BATGIRL 23BATMAN 23BATMAN 23 BLACK WHITE VARBATMAN 23 VARBATMAN ARKHAM UNHINGED 17BATMAN LIL GOTHAM 5BATTLESTAR GALACTICA 3 MRBTVS SEASON 9 FREEFALL 24 JEAN. Currentcomics.net/OLD NEW LISTS/NEW COMICS AUGUST 14 20.UST 14 2013.pdf • Author: none • Size: 110 KB • Created: Tue Aug 13 20. Pages: 1 DC INDIE SONS OF ANARCHY 8 MR SPAWN 242ASTRO CITY 11 Archie COMIC SUPER SPECIAL 5 RESSPONGEBOB Comics 31100 BULLETS BROTHER LONO TP MR Archie Double Double Digest 250STAR WARS 16 2013 ONGOINGASTRO CITY SHINING STARS TP RES BATTLESTAR GALACTICA ANNUAL 2014THE LONE RANGER 23 OF 25ASTRO CITY THROUGH OPEN DOORS HC BLOODSHOT HARD CORPS 21THREE TP MRBATGIRL 30 CLIVE BARKER NEXT TESTAMENT 8 OF 12 MRTMNT. Coliseumofcomics.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/wci_040./wci_040914.pdf • Author: none • Size: 316 KB • Created: Mon Apr 7 16. Pages: 1 New Comics TP s Savage Wolverine 13 for the Week of 12 31 13 Superboy TP Vol 03 LostSuperior Foes of Spider-Man 7Superman 26Action Adventure Superman 26 Var EdBad Blood 1 Superman Unchained 5Baltimore Chapel of Bones 1 Superman Unchained 5 75th Anniv Var Ed Bronze AgeBlack Science 1 2nd Ptg Superman Unchained 5 75th Anniv Var Ed Golden AgeCaptain Midnight 1 for 1 Superman Unchained 5 75th Anniv Va. Online-revolution.com/List to Pri.nt 12-31-13.pdf • Author: none • Size: 189 KB • Created: Wed Dec 18 10.

Pages: 1 Iron Man 24 New Comics TP s Iron Man 24 Captain America Team Up VarJudge Dredd 18for the Week of 4 9 14 Justice League 3000 513Action AdventureKick-Ass 3 7Magnus Robot Fighter 2Deceivers 4 Mighty Avengers 9East of West 11 Nightcrawler 1East of West TP Vol 02 We Are All One Secret Avengers 2Flash Gordon 1 Spawn 242GI Joe Special Missions 14 Star Wars 16Kings Watch 5 Superboy 30Lola XOXO 1 Superior. Online-revolution.com/.List_4_9_12.pdf • Author: none • Size: 262 KB • Created: Wed Apr 2 10. Pages: 1 Legion Lost 1 New Comics TPB s Marvel Zombies Supreme HCMister Terrific 1for the Week of 9 14 11 Mystery Men 5New Avengers 16New Avengers 16 Arch Sketch Var FearAdventure Action New Avengers 16 Arch Var Fear27 Second Set 1 PunisherMAX 17Anne Rice Servant of the Bones 2 Red Lanterns 1Baltimore Curse Bells 2 Resurrection Man 1Blue Estate TP Vol 01 Spider-island Amazing Spider-Girl 2 SpICarbon Grey V.

Online-revolution.com/l.ist_9-14-11.pdf • Author: none • Size: 144 KB • Created: Mon Sep 12 11. Pages: 1 Loki Agent of Asgard 2 McKelvie Design Var New Comics TP s Magneto 1Mark Waid Green Hornet 10for the Week of 3 05 14 Moon Knight 1Movement 1013Action AdventureNew Warriors 2Night of Living Deadpool 4Apocalypse Al 2Nova 14Bad Blood 3Nova TP Vol 02 Rookie SeasonBurn the Orphanage Born to Lose 3Phantom Stranger TP Vol 02 Breach of FaithCatalyst Comix 9Punisher 3Clone 15Quantum Woody Goat 0Day Men 3Qu. Online-revolution.com/.List_3_5_14.pdf • Author: none • Size: 230 KB • Created: Wed Feb 26 09. Pages: 1 Hulk 47 New Comics TP s Huntress 4Irredeemable 33for the Week of 1 4 12 thJustice League 1 5 PtgJustice League international 5Action Adventure Men of War 5Betrayal of the Planet of the Apes 3 O M A C 5Blood Red Dragon 3 Penguin Pain and Prejudice 4Charmed 17 Punisher 7Cold War 4 Red Lanterns 5Elric the Balance Lost 7 Soulfire Vol 3 6Fatale 1 Star Trek Legion of Superheroes 4Flash Gordon Zeitgeist. Online-revolution.com/.list_1_4_12.pdf • Author: none • Size: 144 KB • Created: Wed Dec 28 14. Pages: 7 New Comics March 13 2013 Comics MAGAZINESAGE OF ULTRON 2 OF 10AGE OF ULTRON 2 OF 10 ULTRON VARIANTALL NEW X-MEN 2 3RD PRINTING IMMONEN VARIANT NOW reorderALL NEW X-MEN 3 3RD PRINTING IMMONEN VARIANT NOW reorderALL NEW X-MEN 4 3RD PRINTING IMMONEN VARIANT NOW reorderALL NEW X-MEN 5 3RD PRINTING IMMONEN VARIANT NOW reorderALL NEW X-MEN 7 2ND PRINTING MARQUEZ VARIANT NOW reorderALPHA BIG TIME 2 OF 5A.

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