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Sound can levitate objects of different sizes and materials through air, water and tissue. This allows us to manipulate cells, liquids, compounds or living things without touching or contaminating them. However, acoustic levitation has required the targets to be enclosed with acoustic elements or had limited manoeuvrability. Here we optimize the phases used to drive an ultrasonic phased array and show that acoustic levitation can be employed to translate, rotate and manipulate particles using even a single-sided emitter. Furthermore, we introduce the holographic acoustic elements framework that permits the rapid generation of traps and provides a bridge between optical and acoustical trapping.
Acoustic structures shaped as tweezers, twisters or bottles emerge as the optimum mechanisms for tractor beams or containerless transportation. Single-beam levitation could manipulate particles inside our body for applications in targeted drug delivery or acoustically controlled micro-machines that do not interfere with magnetic resonance imaging.
Acoustic waves can exert radiation forces and form acoustic traps at points where these forces converge permitting the levitation of particles of a wide range of materials and sizes through air, water or biological tissues. This is of paramount importance for crystallography, cell manipulation, lab-on-a-chip scenarios, biomaterials, containerless transportation, and even the levitation of living things. With previous acoustic levitators, the trapped particles had to be enclosed by acoustic elements,. Single-sided (or single-beam) levitators only exerted lateral trapping forces,, pulling forces, or required the use of an acoustic lens.
Furthermore, translation,,, and rotation of the traps were limited. Single-axis levitators,,, are a common arrangement for generating acoustic traps.
They consist of an acoustic transducer and a reflector or another transducer above it. This generates a standing wave between the two elements and the nodes of the wave act as trap. By changing the phase difference between the transducers, the traps move in a single dimension without mechanical actuation. Various configurations for two-dimensional manipulation have been explored, for example, a flat array of transducers and a parallel reflector provides movement within the plane of the array. Alternatively, an inward-facing circular array of transducers can translate, and rotate a particle within the circle. Three-dimensional (3D) translation is possible with four arrays placed forming a square and recently with two opposed arrays.
Recent progress has seen custom-made piezoelectric elements being used to create traps with a single-sided device (acoustic tweezers). However, these traps only exert lateral forces and thus the particles have to rest on a surface. Pulling forces acting counter to the propagation direction (tractor beams) have been measured in water using triangular-shaped particles and in air using acoustic bottle beams. Full 3D trapping with a single-sided device has been shown theoretically, and a static underwater 3D trap has recently been reported. Nonetheless, a physical acoustic lens was required, introducing considerable energy loss and fixing the position of the trap to the focal point. Controlled 3D trapping, translation and rotation with a single-sided array would enable acoustic tweezers to become the larger-scale counterparts of optical tweezers, opening up applications in materials processing, micro-scale manufacturing and biomedicine.
Here we demonstrate simultaneous 3D acoustic trapping, translation and rotation of levitated particles using a single-sided array operating in air. This is achieved by optimally adjusting the phase delays used to drive an array of transducers; in this way unprecedented acoustic structures are generated without resorting to physical lenses, custom transducers or mechanical actuation. Our approach generates optimum traps at the target positions with any spatial arrangement of transducers and significantly enhances previous manipulators. We report three optimum acoustic traps: tweezer-like twin traps, a novel acoustic phenomenon with the ability to also rotate objects; twister-like vortex traps, whose levitation capabilities were shown theoretically, and recently observed experimentally using a fixed acoustic lens; and bottle-shaped traps, never proven or suggested to levitate objects before.
We also introduce the holographic acoustic element framework based on interpreting the phase delays as a holographic plate that combines the encoding of identifiable acoustic elements. The framework permits the analysis and efficient generation of acoustic traps as well as comparisons with optical traps. This work brings the advantages of optical tweezing (that is, single-beam, rotation, holographic control and multiple particles) to the efficiency and versatility of acoustic levitation and could lead to the development of powerful tractor beams, 3D physical displays or acoustically controlled in vivo micro-machines that do not interfere with magnetic resonance imaging. Universal optimizer We characterize a 3D trap as a point towards which the forces converge from all directions. More explicitly, the Gor’kov potential defines a field, the gradient of which gives the forces exerted on small spheres; therefore, the Laplacian operator applied to the Gor’kov potential represents the trapping strength at a certain point.
The Gor’kov Laplacian function at one position in space can be expressed as a nonlinear infinitely differentiable function with the phase delays (modulations) applied to the transducers as the only variables. With this function and the gradient of its variables, we employ a Broyden–Fletcher–Goldfarb–Shanno (BFGS) optimizer to obtain the phase modulations for the transducers so that when driven with a reference signal the generated acoustic field exerts maximum trapping forces on a particle situated at the target point. Samsung Galaxy Ace 2 Usb Driver Windows Xp more. Our formulations of the Gor’kov Laplacian and its gradient enable real-time optimization. Maximizing the Gor’kov Laplacian at a point sets the phase modulation of the transducers to generate a focal point at that position.
Jitbit Macro Recorder Serial Code on this page. In theory, a focal point can trap a particle exactly at its centre, where all the amplitude gradient forces cancel each other and the velocity gradient forces drag the particle in; amplitude gradients push the particles from high-amplitude regions to low-amplitude ones, whereas velocity gradients displace particles towards regions with high complex gradients of the acoustic field (see Methods, equation (3)). However, a focal point is only a theoretical solution; experimentally, dense particles are repelled by the focal point and it is not possible to levitate particles around a focal point in a stable manner ( and ). Consequently, our optimizer uses an objective function that simultaneously maximizes the Gor’kov Laplacian and minimizes the pressure amplitude at the target point. These silent acoustic traps are the counterpart of dark optical traps. In addition, weights are applied to each component of the Gor’kov Laplacian to control the trapping strength in each dimension (see Methods, equation (9)).
This optimization method can be applied to scenarios with reflectors and any spatial arrangement of acoustic elements. Therefore, we can use it to control and enhance previously suggested manipulators. The improvements on the working volume for some arrangements from the literature,, are presented in as a comparative qualitative representation (). This illustrates the benefit of using an optimization approach over the current positioning algorithms. More importantly, we show here that the optimization method can for the first time trap, translate and rotate particles using single-sided arrays (). Depending on the spatial arrangement of the array and the weights selected for each dimension, different acoustic traps are created. For a detailed description of the arrangements, see and.
The magenta volume represents the area within which the particles can be translated in a controlled manner. To the left of the arrow the previous working volume is shown and to the right the working volumes using our approach. ( a) With our method an acoustic reflector on top and transducers on the bottom can move objects in 3D, previously it was only possible in the z plane. ( b) Ring-shaped arrangements can now translate particles inside the tube formed when various rings are placed together, before it was only possible inside a single ring. ( c) Ochiai et al.
Four-array manipulator expands its working volume, can work with only two arrays and a low density of transducers. Expanded polystyrene particles ranging from 0.6 to 3.1 mm diameter are levitated above single-sided arrays. The acoustic transducers (10 mm diameter) are driven at 16 Vpp and 40 kHz. ( a– c) The particles can be translated along 3D paths at up to 25 cm s −1 using different arrangements and without moving the array. ( c– e) The traps are strong enough to hold the spheres and counteract gravity from any direction. ( f) Asymmetric objects, such as ellipsoidal particles, can be controllably rotated at up to 128 r.p.m.
Scale bars represent 2 mm for the particle in a and 20 mm for the rest. Acoustic traps can be analysed in terms of the origin of the exerted forces; namely, radiation forces are generated by amplitude gradients or velocity gradients (see Methods, equation (3)). In addition, phase singularities can be used to characterize the traps. Phase singularities are regions with zero amplitude and thus where the phase is not defined.
As a novel method to analyse traps, we introduce the concept of holographic acoustic elements. The phase modulation applied to the transducers is interpreted as a holographic plate that when driven with a reference signal renders an acoustic field. In our case, the traps are encoded as the combination of two holographic acoustic elements: a holographic acoustic lens that generates a focal point at the trap position and an extra element dependent on the type of trap ().
The lens is obtained by making all the emitted waves coincide in phase at the focal point. By subtracting this lens from the optimized total plate, the holographic signature of the trap is obtained. The signature is an interesting feature for analysing the traps as to some extent it is invariant to the levitation position and can be compared with existing holographical optical traps. Twin traps emerge when equal weights are specified in v-shape arrangements or a large x axis weight is used for other arrangements.
These traps have two finger-like cylindrical regions of high amplitude, which tweeze the particle with amplitude gradients in the x direction. Velocity gradients constrain in the other two axes. A plane phase singularity (that is, two-dimensional) occurs between the cylinders in the x plane. The holographic signature has a π-phase difference between the two halves of the array. By rotation of the reference co-ordinate system or the holographic signature, the tweezer structure and the clamped particle can be rotated. Twin traps are shown in operation in and have never been reported theoretically or experimentally in acoustics or optics.
Vortex traps emerge when equal weights are used in a hemispherical cap or a flat array. The xy section of the trap shows a high-amplitude ring that generates lateral trapping forces with amplitude gradients. Along the z axis, the trapping force is due to velocity gradients and the phase is a 3D corkscrew spiralling around a line phase singularity (that is, one-dimensional). The holographic signature is a helicoidal pattern.
A particle trapped in this vortex trap spins around its own axis following the signature direction due to transfer of angular momentum. In our experiments, only small particles could be trapped (diameter.
Until now, only standing waves,,,, or Bessel beams, were capable of translating levitated particles. On the other hand, single-sided arrays required an acoustic lens and generated static traps.
Here we have presented an optimization method that creates optimal traps at the desired positions with different array geometries. It can directly control previous manipulators offering better results in terms of working volume. More importantly, the method can be applied to single-sided arrays and generates some unprecedented acoustic structures (that is, twin traps). The introduction of three acoustic structures for the translation and rotation of levitated particles will find applications in tractor beams, containerless handling of matter and tangible displays. Our systems use inexpensive low-power transducers but high-power versions could enable longer range 3D transportation, orientation and assembly of heavier objects.
Single-sided devices potentially enable in vivo manipulation since the device could be applied directly onto the skin with the manipulation taking place inside the body; similar to an ultrasound scanner but for manipulating particles (that is, drug capsules, kidney stones or micro-surgical instruments). This is a significant advantage over two-sided opposed arrangements, which require the target area to be sandwiched by the arrays; also, single-beam traps do not have repeated patterns that could accidentally trap other particles or generate undesired secondary maxima. We also introduced the holographic acoustic framework that allows the traps to be generated without iterative methods. A direct link between optical and acoustic trapping has now been established and we expect this to yield further advances in both fields.